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You have probably noticed that default permissions are set when creating a new file, and these permissions are determined by the umask setting. This is a shell setting that is set for all users when logging in to the system. The default umask makes sure that all users have read access to all new files. Because this isn t very secure, it makes sense to restrict the default umask a little. A numeric value is used in the umask setting, and this value is subtracted from the maximum permissions that can be set automatically; the maximum settings are 666 for files and 777 for directories. Of course, some exceptions to this rule make it all quite hard to understand, but you can find a complete overview of umask settings in Table 5-2. Of the digits used in the umask, as with the numeric arguments for the chmod command, the first digit refers to user permissions, the second digit refers to the group permissions, and

The backslash can also be used to stop BASH from interpreting other symbols in the way it usually does. For example, the less-than and greater-than symbols (<>) have a specific meaning in BASH, but they re allowed in filenames. So to copy the file <bach>.mp3 to the directory /mydirectory, you could type the following:

Summary

cp /<bach/>.mp3 mydirectory/

the last digit refers to the default permissions for others. The default umask setting of 022 gives 644 for all new files and 755 for all new directories that are created on your server. Table 5-2. umask Values and Their Results

Generally speaking, however, simply enclosing filenames in quotation marks is the easiest approach. Often you might find that filenames under Linux avoid using spaces completely by using hyphens or underscore characters instead, or by simply not including the space characters and running the words into each other (for example, thirdquarterreport.doc).

Another handy command is cd, for change directory. This lets you move around the file system from directory to directory. Say you re in a directory that has another directory in it, named mydirectory2. Switching to it is easy: cd mydirectory2 But how do you get out of this directory after you re in it Try the following command: cd .. The .. refers to the parent directory, which is the one containing the directory you re currently browsing. Using two dots to indicate this may seem odd, but it s just the way that Ubuntu (and UNIX before it) does things. It s one of the many conventions that UNIX relies on and that you ll pick up as you go along. To switch to the root of the file system, you would type the following: cd /

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Many queries require us to obtain information from two rows of a table. This turns up in a number of situations. The main ones are where we have self relationships or questions involving the word both.

Tip BASH always remembers the last directory you were in, and you can switch to it instantly by typing cd -.

What if you want to create a new directory and, at the same time, create a new directory to contain it Simply use the -p command option. The following command will create a new folder called flowers and, at the same time, create a directory within /flowers called /daffodil: mkdir -p flowers/daffodil

You can change the umask setting for all users or for individual users. If you want to set the umask for all users, you must make sure the umask setting is entered in the /etc/profile configuration file. If the umask is changed

A path is simply the description of where in the file system a particular file or folder lives for example, /home/ubuntu/Music/britneyspears.mp3. Paths come in two forms: absolute and relative. The differences are simple. An absolute path shows the location of the file from the ground up from the root of the file system, specifying each individual folder along the way. The preceding example (/home/ubuntu/ Music/britneyspears.mp3) is an absolute path. There s an elementary way of identifying them: absolute paths always begin with a forward slash, which indicates the root of the file system. A relative path is one that s expressed relative to the currently browsed directory. That might be a little difficult to understand, so here s an example. We already know that, when used with the cd command, two dots (..) refer to the parent directory of the one currently being browsed. With this in mind, what if the user Frank was browsing /home/Frank/Music and wanted to switch to the /etc directory, which contains configuration files He could simply type cd /etc, thereby specifying the absolute path. That s certainly the simplest method. But he also could specify a relative path as follows: